The present invention is generally in the area of the fabrication of poly(ethylene oxide) (xe2x80x9cPEOxe2x80x9d) coatings on surfaces.
PEO is a polymer which has many unique properties. It is soluble in a wide variety of solvents including water, benzene and tetrahydrofuran. In organic solvents, it solvates the monovalent metal ions, Li+, K+ and Na+. PEO is unusual in its lack of interaction with biological matter and can provide an inert surface in certain biological applications. Merrill, E. W., J. Biomat. Sci. Polymer Edn., 5:1-11 (1993). PEO is an important biomaterial because it is non-thrombogenic, i.e., it does not adsorb proteins of the intrinsic clotting system, and platelets do not adhere to it.
PEO star-shaped macromolecules are available which have many PEO chains or xe2x80x9carmsxe2x80x9d connected to a central body which is called the core. PEO star macromolecules can be synthesized, for example, by a living anionic polymerization using a divinylbenzene (DVB) core. Gnanou et al., Makromol. Chemie, 189:2885-2892 (1988); and Merrill, J. Biomater. Sci. Polymer Edn., 5:1-11 (1993).
There has been recent interest focused on the development of methods for coating surfaces with PEO. A PEO surface coating is very useful in blood-contacting devices, such as tubes and catheters, and products intended for diagnostic use, because such surfaces have the least non-specific binding to proteins and other biopolymers of any known synthetic polymer. Thus, the use of PEO coatings permits blood clotting to be minimized, and diagnostic assays to be improved.
A major problem has been the development of a thin, dense layers of PEO to cover support materials such as hard plastics, such as polyethylene terephthalate (xe2x80x9cPETExe2x80x9d) or flexible materials, such as silicone rubber and segmented polyurethane.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,171,264 and 5,275,838 to Merrill disclose that a water solution of PEO, either linear or in star form, can be cross-linked by electron irradiation to form a hydrogel layer. The hydrogel has a thickness ranging down to about 0.5 mm, which is not strongly attached to the supporting material and rather easily sheared off. Upon attachment of affinity ligands to the hydrogels, the surfaces can be used for separating and purifying therapeutic proteins.
Alternatively, PEO polymers can be attached to surfaces by hydroxyl group activation followed by chemical coupling. The terminal hydroxyl groups of the PEO molecule can chemically activated, for example, by tresyl chloride, and then attached to a surface which contains appropriate reactive groups, e.g., amino or thiol. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,171,264 and 5,275,838 to Merrill. There are, however, problems associated with this route. It is difficult to prepare stable surfaces having amino or thiol groups, and some procedures result in degradation of the surface to the extent that it can be readily washed off, thus providing no anchor for the PEO. Additionally, it is very difficult to implant linear PEO molecules on surfaces via this route with sufficient density to prevent the adsorption of biopolymers.
There is a need for methods for improving the hydrophilicity of hydrophobic polymer surfaces, while still maintaining the physical properties of the hydrophobic polymers. There is further a need for the development of methods for forming biocompatible coatings on surfaces. There further is a need for methods for producing hydrophilic coatings on surfaces to improve the biocompatibility of the surfaces, wherein the coatings can be readily derivatized by the attachment of biological molecules to the coating.
It is therefore an object of the invention to provide methods for the production of hydrophilic coatings on hydrophobic polymers. It is a further object of the invention to provide hydrophilic coatings on surfaces, such as PEO coatings, which reduce non-specific binding to the surfaces. It is still another object of the invention to provide methods for fabricating coatings on surfaces which can be readily derivatized by the attachment of biological molecules for use in a variety of biomedical applications.
Methods are provided for the fabrication of hydrophilic coatings on hydrophobic surfaces. In one embodiment, a poly(ethylene oxide) (xe2x80x9cPEOxe2x80x9d) coating is fabricated on the surface of a hydrophobic polymeric material by contacting the surface with a monomer comprising an unsaturated group, such as methacrylic acid or acrylic acid. The monomer then is reacted, for example by irradiation with an electron beam, to polymerize and, as a polymer, to be covalently attached to the surface. A coating of PEO molecules then may be attached to the polymer surface by hydrogen bond complexation. The PEO coating optionally may be covalently grafted onto the surface, for example, by irradiation grafting with an electron beam. The covalent polymerization and grafting of a coating of the monomers to the surface greatly improves the wettability of the surface, and also facilitates the covalent or non-covalent attachment of a coating of PEO to the hydrophobic polymer surface. Thus, hydrophilic PEO coatings can be fabricated on hydrophobic polymer surfaces, to improve the biocompatibility and other properties of the polymers, and to provide coated polymers which can be used in a variety of different applications.
Methods for the fabrication of hydrophilic coatings on hydrophobic surfaces are provided. In one embodiment, a monomer comprising an unsaturated group is grafted onto the surface, for example, by irradiation with an electron beam, to produce a polymer surface with improved wettability properties. A poly(ethylene oxide) coating then is attached to the treated surface by hydrogen bond complexation. The poly(ethylene oxide) coating then optionally may be covalently grafted onto the surface, for example, by electron beam irradiation. The poly(ethylene oxide) coatings improve the biocompatibility and hydrophilicity of the polymer surface. The surfaces may be further reacted, for example, by the attachment of a biologically active molecule, such as protein, to the surface. The polymer surfaces thus may be derivatized for use in a wide variety of biomedical applications.
Glossary of Terms
The following abbreviations are defined so that their use in this application is unambiguous:
Monomers
Monomers comprising an unsaturated group, such as methacrylic acid or acrylic acid, can be grafted onto hydrophobic polymer surfaces to improve the hydrophilicity of the surfaces. Grafting of the monomers to the hydrophobic surfaces greatly improves the wettability properties of the surfaces, and permits the attachment of other polymers to the surfaces, to further improve the hydrophilicity, or other properties of the polymer surfaces. In one embodiment, the monomer is attached to the surface by irradiating the monomer on the surface with an electron beam, to cause polymerization and covalent attachment of the polymerized monomer on the surface as coating.
Monomers comprising an unsaturated group available in the art can be used which are capable of reacting with a hydrophobic polymer surface, to enhance the hydrophilicity of the surface, for example, by irradiation of the surface in contact with the monomer with an electron beam. Suitable monomers include: methacrylic acid and monovalent metal salts thereof, methacryloyl chloride, acrylic acid and monovalent salts thereof, acryloyl chloride, hydroxyethyl methacrylate, glycidyl methacrylate, hydroxyethyl acrylate, and hydroxypropyl acrylate.
When glycidyl methacrylate is used, the glycidyl ring must be opened to yield 1,2-dihydroxypropyl methacrylate. When acid chlorides are used, they must be hydrolyzed to the free acid. When monovalent metal salts of the acids are used, they must be converted to the free acid by rinsing with acidified water, prior to exposure to PEO. In one preferred embodiment, the monomer is methacrylic acid. The covalent grafting of methacrylic acid to hydrophobic polymer surfaces as disclosed herein greatly improves the hydrophilicity of the polymer surface, and provides a surface which can readily adsorb PEO, PEG, and Star PEO.
In one embodiment, the surface first is contacted with a water solution of a monomer, such as methacrylic acid, at a concentration of, for example, about 5-90% (w/v) in water for example, by immersing or spraying the surface. The wet surface then is exposed to electron beam irradiation on the order of about 1 to 10 megarads, to polymerize the monomer and covalently graft some of the polymer to the surface. During the reaction, the monomers polymerize, forming at least some polymer chains grafted to the support. The reaction conditions, including monomer concentration, and the dose of electron beam irradiation can be selected and optimized depending on the polymer and monomers used.
In one example of the procedure, a substrate material including a hydrophobic polymer surface of, for example, polystyrene, polyethylene, or poly(methyl methacrylate) is immersed in a shallow aqueous solution of 10 to 20% (w/v) (xe2x80x9cweight/volumexe2x80x9d) methacrylic acid. Alternatively, the surface can be sprayed with the monomer solution. The substrate in solution then is exposed to an electron beam for a total dosage of about 2-4 megarads, thereby polymerizing and grafting the methacrylic acid to the substrate surface, to make the surface more hydrophilic.
The conditions may vary depending on the polymers and monomers used. For example, for poly(methyl methacrylate) (xe2x80x9cPMMAxe2x80x9d) substrate surfaces, the use of about 10%-20% (w/v) methacrylic acid (xe2x80x9cMAxe2x80x9d) and a total dose of about 4 megarads is preferred. For polystyrene surfaces, about a 20% (w/v) concentration of MA and a total dose of about 4 megarads is preferred, and for polyethylene, a total dose of about 2-4 megarads and about 20% MA (w/v) can be used. The surface then may be washed with water at a pH less than or equal to about 7 to remove unbound MA and unbound polymerized MA. The methacrylic acid treated surfaces are highly wettable, holding a film of water on the surface. The appropriate conditions can be optimized for the polymer and monomer utilized. Using the method, the hydrophobic surfaces can be reacted with the monomers to form hydrophilic surfaces which have excellent, highly improved wettability.
Hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) also can be used, and can be grafted to hydrophobic polymers, to form a wettable surface, capable of binding hydrophilic polymers such as PEO molecules. HEMA can be radiation grafted, for example, onto polyethylene and polyvinylchloride acetate copolymer surfaces. After radiation, HEMA forms a viscous syrup, ultimately a gel, which is difficult to remove. Once removed by vigorous rubbing, the wettable surfaces avidly bind polyethylene oxide. In contrast, the use of methacrylic acid in water solution after extensive irradiation produces a polymer of low molecular weight which does not gel. It is possible to utilize undiluted monomer if the radiation dose is kept low, or the dose rate is kept low. Water solutions are preferred because undiluted monomer, particularly the acrylates, can undergo rapid highly exothermic reaction, leading to gelation and the formation of a tightly adherent gel layer on the hydrophobic polymer.
Other monomers which can be used include N-vinyl pyrrolidone, which renders some surfaces, such as PMMA wettable, but does not readily adsorb PEO. Acrylic acid is not very effective alone but can be used in combination with other effective monomers such as methacrylic acid. Acrylic acid in 50% solution in water, and undiluted, grafts to polyethylene after irradiation but forms a tenacious gel, so that the radiation dose must be very carefully regulated in order to achieve a smooth surface.
Polymer Surfaces
Any of a wide range of hydrophobic surfaces can be used which are capable of being grafted with monomers as disclosed herein, to improve the hydrophilicity of the polymer. Hydrophobic polymer surfaces which are generally very difficult to render hydrophilic can be rendered wettable. Exemplary polymer surfaces include polyalkylenes, such as polypropylene or polyethylene; polyarylalkylenes such as polystyrene; polyvinyls, such as poly(vinyl chloride) or poly(vinylidene fluoride); polyalkylacrylates, such as poly(methyl methacrylate), and poly(alkylene terephthalates), such as poly(ethylene terephthalate). Other exemplary polymer surfaces include polydiolefins, polysiloxanes, and flexible materials such as natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, silicone rubber and polyurethanes including segmented polyurethane.
For example, polystyrene, polymethyl(methacrylate), poly(ethylene terephthalate) poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinylidene fluoride), polyethylene, and polypropylene surfaces can be rendered water-wettable, and can be subsequently reacted to form a PEO coating, by covalently reacting monomers such as methacrylic acid with the surface by electron beam irradiation. Exemplary polyethylene polymers include low density, high density, and ultra high molecular weight polyethylene, as well as polyethylene copolymers. Other exemplary polymers include polybutadiene, synthetic polyisoprene, copolymers of butadiene and isoprene, and plasticized polyvinyl chloride.
Poly(Ethylene Oxide) Coatings
After the polymer surface has been reacted with the monomer by, for example, irradiation with an electron beam, a poly(ethylene oxide) coating may be attached to the surface either covalently or non-covalently. As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cpoly(ethylene oxide)xe2x80x9d includes polymeric ethylene glycols such as PEO, PEG, and star PEO. In one embodiment, after reaction of the monomer with the polymer surface, poly(ethylene oxide) molecules are adsorbed to the surface to form a coating by hydrogen bonding to the hydrogen bond donor of the previously grafted monomer. In another embodiment, optionally, the PEO coating then may be covalently attached to the surface, for example, by irradiation with an electron beam.
Any of a variety of PEO polymers available in the art can be complexed with the grafted surface. For example, linear PEO or PEG with a molecular weight between about 1,000 to 5,000,000 daltons or more, may be used. Additionally, PEO star-shaped macromolecules may be used, for example, with a molecular weight of about 30,000 to 3,000,000 daltons. Star PEO molecules include a plurality of poly(ethylene oxide) arms connected to common small core, each arm having a hydroxyl at outer end. The synthesis of PEO star-shaped molecules is described, for example, in U.S. Ser. No. 08/405,149, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. In this embodiment, PEO star-shaped macromolecules with a poly 1,2-butadiene dendritic core are formed via the living anionic polymerization reaction of a poly 1,2-butadiene of narrow molecular weight distribution with ethylene oxide. The PEO star-shaped polymers produced are nearly monodisperse, have a substantially uniform number of PEO chains, and do not vary substantially in molecular weight.
If the surface has been rendered hydrophilic by grafting the monovalent metal salts of methacrylic acid or acrylic acid, the carboxylic acid must be restored by washing the surface with dilute acid (pH around 3 or lower). This step is not necessary if the acid forms of the monomers are used. If the acid chloride form of the monomer is used, the surface so treated would be washed with water to hydrolyze the acid chloride to the free carboxylic acid. The PEO solution can be applied by, for example, immersing the surface or spraying the solution. In one exemplary procedure, linear PEO with a molecular weight of 35,000 daltons is complexed to a MA treated polystyrene or MA treated PMMA surface by soaking the polymer in an aqueous solution containing about 5% (w/v) PEO for about 5 minutes. This causes the PEO to strongly complex by hydrogen bonding to the grafted surface. The surface optionally then is washed with deionized water, to remove any non-complexed PEO. This produces a surface with a coating of linear PEO bound by hydrogen bonding to the surface. The wet PEO coating on the complexed surface then may be covalently attached to the surface by, for example, exposure to electron beam irradiation, for example on the order of about 2-5 megarads. The covalent attachment of the PEO can occur via the radical reaction of the complexed PEO with the treated surface. In addition to covalent bonding of PEO to the surface, cross-linking of the PEO molecules can occur. The hydrogen bonding between the treated surface and the PEO permits the close association of the PEO to the surface, such that a high concentration of PEO molecules can be covalently grafted to the substrate surface, which has not been previously easily accomplished.
The thickness of the poly(ethylene oxide) coating may be readily controlled. For example, PEO coatings ranging from monolayers, of tens of nanometers in thickness, to multilayers on the order of 0.1 to 100 xcexcm in thickness while wet can be formed. For example, in one embodiment, to form a thin, substantially monolayer of poly(ethylene oxide) on the grafted surface, the grafted polymer surface is contacted with poly(ethylene oxide) molecules, to adsorb the poly(ethylene oxide) molecules to the surface. Poly(ethylene oxide) molecules which are not adsorbed to the surface are then removed, for example by rinsing with water, to leave essentially a monolayer of poly(ethylene oxide) molecules adsorbed on the surface, which then is covalently grafted to the surface, to form a thin coating, essentially a monolayer of the poly(ethylene) oxide on the surface. The poly(ethylene oxide) can be in the form of PEG and star PEO as well as the higher molecular weight PEO.
In an alternative embodiment, the surface is contacted with a solution of poly(ethylene oxide) molecules, thereby to adsorb the poly(ethylene oxide) molecules to the surface, and then a thin layer of the poly(ethylene oxide) solution is left on the surface by draining the solution from the surface, but not rinsing it, to leave a multilayer of poly(ethylene oxide) molecules on the surface. The poly(ethylene oxide) molecules then are grafted to the surface, to form a thin multilayer film of poly(ethylene oxide) on the surface, for example on the order of about 0.1 to 100 xcexcm thick while wet. The slipperyness of the multilayer film can be enhanced by using a high molecular weight poly(ethylene oxide), such as PEO with a molecular weight of one million or more.
The poly(ethylene oxide) coating preferably is covalently attached to the surface, after grafting of the monomer, by irradiation grafting with an electron beam. In one embodiment, gas permeable hard contact lenses can be derivatized with a covalent PEO coating using the method, to improve the wettability of the lenses. Gas permeable hard contact lenses such as the Boston lens, manufactured by Polymer Technology Corporation, can be coated. In this embodiment, the gas permeable hard contact lens surface is preferably first reacted electron beam irradiation with methacrylic acid monomers, to improve the hydrophilicity of the surface, and then PEO, for example of molecular weight 1,000,000, is grafted onto the treated surface by irradiation of a thin layer of its solution in water with an electron beam as described herein.
Covalent PEO coatings can be fabricated which essentially completely cover the surface. For example, coatings of linear PEO of 35,000 mol. wt. on PETE and PMMA support surfaces can be obtained wherein, by electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (xe2x80x9cESCAxe2x80x9d), using an X-ray photoelectron spectrometer, the top 30 xc3x85 to 50 xc3x85 of the coating detected is only PEO. The PEO coated materials obtained are readily wet by water and hold a film of water tenaciously. Additionally, the concentration of hydroxyl ends of the PEO on the surface, which can be used to anchor or attach to biological molecules, is very high.
Derivatization of Poly(Ethylene Oxide) Coatings
The poly(ethylene oxide) coatings, such as PEO star coatings, prevent non-specific binding of biopolymers and advantageously can be further derivatized, to improve the biocompatibility or specific binding properties of the polymer. The PEO chains in the polymer coating on the surface may be derivatized, for example, by attachment of a biomolecule or polymer thereof to the free hydroxyl groups at the termini of the PEO chains. The PEO arms on the PEO star molecules used to form the coating can serve as a molecular xe2x80x9cleashxe2x80x9d for biological molecules, such as antibodies, enzymes and growth factors.
Any of a range of biological molecules, such as nucleic acids, amino acids, saccharides or polymers thereof may be attached to the PEO chains of the linear or star PEO polymers bound non-covalently or covalently to a polymer surface. As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cnucleic acids, amino acids and saccharides, or polymersxe2x80x9d includes natural and synthetic derivatives thereof. Exemplary biological molecules which can be attached to the PEO coated surfaces include proteins including enzymes and antibodies, lipids, and polysaccharides. As used herein, the term xe2x80x9cproteinxe2x80x9d is defined as a polymer of two or more amino acids or amino acid derivatives, such as a peptide, polypeptide or enzyme. The term xe2x80x9camino acidxe2x80x9d as used herein includes amino acids and amino acid derivatives. In a further embodiment, at least two different biological molecules or polymers thereof may be covalently attached to the terminal hydroxyl groups on the PEO chains, to produce a multifunctional polymer coating on the surface. For example, two different enzymes, or an enzyme and a polysaccharide may be attached to the PEO coating.
Methods for activating the hydroxyl termini of PEO chains and then attaching a ligand, such as an antibody, to the termini are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,171,264 and 5,275,838, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. For example, the free hydroxyl groups can be activated with tresyl chloride and then reacted with a ligand that contains a free amino acid or thiol group to form a covalent linkage with the ligand. Harris, J. Macromolecular Sci. Reviews in Macro. Chem. Phys., C25(3):325-373 (1985).
Applications
The hydrophobic surfaces treated with monomers as disclosed herein to improve substantially the hydrophilicity of the surfaces, and further reacted to include a poly(ethylene oxide) polymeric coating, can be used in a variety of applications. Materials forming, or coating, for example, membranes, prostheses, stents, catheters, sutures or polymeric materials, such as particles or beads can be coated to improve their hydrophilicity.
The PEO polymer coatings can be used in a wide range of biomedical applications. The PEO coatings are biocompatible, non-thrombogenic and have excellent mechanical durability. Accordingly, the PEO coatings are useful in biomedical applications for coating the surfaces of materials in which blood contact is required, such as in vivo vascular prostheses, angioplastic stents, cardiovascular sutures, metabolic support catheters, angioplastic balloon catheters, artificial hearts and ventricular assist devices. The coatings also may be used for ex vivo devices such as hemodialysis membranes and membranes for extracorporeal oxygenators.
The surface treated polymers, having improved hydrophilicity, thus may be used to coat or construct a variety of materials, such as particles, porous polymeric membranes, polymeric films and a range of biomedical devices to improve their hydrophilicity.
The materials provided with derivatized PEO coated surfaces may be used in a variety of biomedical applications. For example, the materials can be used to separate, purify and concentrate biological materials such as proteins, cells, antigens, antibodies or viruses by attaching an affinity ligand such as an antibody, Fab antibody fragment, Protein A, or heparin-NH2 to the coating using methods disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,275,838 to Merrill. The derivatized coated surfaces also may be utilized in a variety of in vivo and ex vivo biomedical devices.
In another embodiment, the hydrophilicity of gas permeable hard contact lenses can be improved by electron beam radiation grafting of the lens surface with an alkylacrylic acid such as methacrylic acid, and then of a poly(ethylene oxide) to the surface. Thus, the methods described herein can be used in a range of applications for improving the hydrophilicity and biocompatibility of hydrophobic polymer surfaces.
The present invention will be further understood by reference to the following non-limiting examples.
Equipment and Materials
In the following examples, Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) was carried out on a Surface Science, Inc. SSX-100 X-ray Photoelectron Spectrometer. Electron beams were generated by a 3 million electron volt Van de Graaff generator (MIT High Voltage Research Laboratory). During the distribution of energy of the electron beam, the electron flux passed through 1.5 mm glass before striking the polymeric substrate material being irradiated and the solution with which this polymeric material was in contact. The effective dose applied to the polymer at its interface with the solution was thus within xc2x110% of the intended dose, whether the polymer was on top of the solution (floating in some cases) or the polymer was underneath the solution. In the latter case, the depth of the solution was maintained at not more than 2-3 mm. The object treated by radiation moved under the electron beam on an continuous belt, therefore the total dose delivered was determined by the beam current in microamperes, the voltage (usually 2.5 to 3.0 million electron volts), the linear speed of the belt, and the number of times the object moved under the electron beam. Doses of electron beam irradiation are reported in megarads (1 million rads=1 megarad). One rad of adsorbed dose corresponds to 100 ergs per gram of irradiated matter. The dose rate used was between 50000 and 100000 rads per second. The number of passes under the beam varied. Thus, for example, a total dose of 4.0 megarads could be delivered in one pass, or in two passes of 2.0 megarads adsorbed dose in each pass, or in four passes of 1.0 megarad adsorbed dose in each pass.
In order to graft a monomer to a polymer in the examples below, the polymer sample was placed in a solution of monomer, and irradiated with a preselected dose of electron beam radiation. Solutions of monomers were made up volumetrically (volume/volume) with freshly filtered and deionized water from a MilliQ System (Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.). The monomer and polymer abbreviations defined in Table 1 are used in the examples. Thus, for example, 10% MA refers to a solution of 10 ml of methacrylic acid and 90 ml of water. Solutions of PEO (linear or star) were made up volumetricallyxe2x80x94gravimetrically. Thus, 4% PEO refers to a water solution containing 4 grams of PEO dissolved in water to yield a total volume of 100 ml. Solutions of PMA and PAA in water were formed similarly to the PEO solutions. After treatment of samples with radiation, the polymer sample was rinsed well with deionized water. In some cases, if the bathing solution, such as 30% NVP, had become particularly viscous, it was found necessary to rub the surface under a stream of water between gloved fingers. If a subsequent irradiation of the same sample under a different solution was planned, the sample was air dried to remove water droplets, to prevent dilution of the new solution.